Darn Form Essay Example

Darn Form Essay We communicated with the client using clear language and she seems to understand everything we said although she did not respond. I was assigned to the patient by my clinical Instructor. Unfortunately, he was hospitalized. I asked my clinical Instructor another client to assign to as a student. I asked the nurse, who worked in my West side, where I could find information about my client. She explained me that most of information about the linen I could find in the computer. The nurse in our side was so nice. She explained every her step without any secret. With my team mates we were able to participate in measured blood glucose level, injection of Morphine, Nitroglycerin patch, TAB shot. Become familiar with the computer system in our facility, clinical instructor was provided training for us. I have been used any opportunity to connect with my team mates, professor, and nurse. As a team, we participated in fire drill and communicated with clients. With the variety of racial and ethnic patients in hospitals today, nurses are faced with the problem of accurate assessing non-English speaking patients. In my clinical day, I used knowledge of background languages such as Hebrew and Russian to help my team mates to understand some clients. In reflecting on my experience this week, I would say I am not alone in clinical, and my clinical instructor, team mates, and nursing staff all there to help each other in any situations. After clinical week, I feel that everyone helps each other. With my team mates I realized that we are team and need to help and collaborate with each other. The clinical week was cognitive and essential. We will write a custom essay sample on Darn Form specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Darn Form specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Darn Form specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer I was really enjoyed working with clinical professor, team mates, and nursing staff. There were a lot of necessary and Interesting information. It was a good experience to provide care for clients with such health conditions as Dementia and Alchemists disease. Next time I need to remember that we are students and some time feel Inexperience and uncertainty. To overcome all of these feelings I also need to remember that there are people to help me. I do not hesitate ask and offer assistance to others students, nurses, and SSW. I learned that being a nurse Is not Just about ladling In providing prescribed medications, doing vital signs, and taking care of the client. Every aspect, communicating, and working together as a team all lead to becoming an excellent nurse. Now that I have experienced and practiced one day In clinical, I feel that with clinical instructor, team mates, and nursing staff I will be able to improve and strengthen my Skills. Communication Ana adjectively working Walt can toner this is I look forward to implementing all my learning skills in clinical situations.

Low-Cost Gift Ideas for College Students

Low-Cost Gift Ideas for College Students If youre like most college students, buying gifts present a complicated dilemma: Youd like to give nice presents but you are, after all, a college student trying to live on a budget. So how can you balance wanting to give nice presents with the limits of your bank account? Luckily, there are ways to give low-cost gifts without coming across as cheap. 8 Low-Cost Gift Ideas for College Students Print out and frame a nice picture. With everything being digital these days, try to remember the last time someone gave you a printed-out picture that you can hang on your wall and how nice that present was (or would be!). If youre really short on cash, print something at the highest quality available on your printer and make a nice frame to match. Give a simple college-themed gift. While the $60 sweatshirts in the campus bookstore are pretty nice, they might also be out of your budget. See what else you can find that celebrates your time in school while costing a little less. Keychains, bumper stickers, t-shirts on the clearance rack (will your cousin really know?), plastic cups, and lots of other presents can be had for under $10 and even under $5, if you really spend some time looking. Give the gift of time. Money may be in tight supply for you, but time may not be especially if you need a gift for the holidays when youre home on break. Consider planning a nice walk with your mom, ​volunteering with your dad, hanging out with your friend at his work one afternoon, or even babysitting for your parents so they can get some time to themselves. Make something from scratch. Nearly everyone has some kind of creative talent. Think about what you do best and run with it. Can you write a few poems? Paint a picture? Mold something out of clay? Take some awesome photographs? Make something from wood? Write a song? Record yourself singing your mothers favorite tunes? Dont sell yourself short as a great source of gifts you can make completely on your own. Put together a piece of your life at college. It doesnt have to be fancy to be effective. If, say, your grandmother never had the chance to go to college, put together a shadow box or collage of images from your time in school. You can collect things like stickers, fall leaves, a page from the course catalog, or articles from the school paper to give her a piece of what your college life is like. Make a memory box for an old friend or family member. You can probably find a nice little box somewhere on campus or at a local big box or drug store. Cut up some nice pieces of paper and write a cherished memory of you and the person youre giving your gift to; fold them over once or twice; Then write a nice card that explains the gift and says how often they can unwrap one of the little memories in the box (once a week? once a month?) It can be a great trip down memory lane for you and a very personal, meaningful gift for an old friend or beloved family member. Frame a design you make. Who says only a photograph can go in a picture frame? Start with a piece of paper and get creative. Print or cut out quotes about the importance of education, snip headlines from your school paper, take (or sketch) a picture of your school as long as you put together something with a similar theme (e.g., your campus), its hard to make a homemade gift like this look bad. Let your creativity flow without worrying about the cost. Switch up a usual gift into something different. Dinner and a movie is a pretty classic gift for a girlfriend, boyfriend, or even a parents birthday. But if your money is tight, you can switch things up to have an equally good time without the high cost. Consider, for example, going to breakfast and a movie. The food bill will be cheaper, your movie will likely be a matinee (and cheaper than an evening film), and you and the person you take will have a unique experience, too.

Developing Americas Second Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Developing Americas Second Language - Essay Example This language is also easy for most American citizens because it entails values that are enforced by societal myths, which are constantly repeated in the popular culture (Wallack & Lawrence 567). Wallack and Lawrence assert that, although this language may be popular among Americans, it is not sufficient enough for advancing public health. Therefore, a second language that properly addresses the unique public health approach needs to be developed. Lack of a well-developed language, for addressing public health concerns, has an adverse effect on the health sector more than the issues of how the doctors spend their working hours. In the United States, the formulation of public policies, which reflect the disciplinary theory of public health to adopt, has been a considerable challenge to the legislatures (Wallack & Lawrence 567). Wallack and Lawrence, in their article "Talking About Public Health: Developing America’s â€Å"Second Language† present a second language, in the U.S. culture, which can significantly help in addressing public health concerns. This is the language of interconnectedness (Wallack & Lawrence 567). The language of interconnectedness is a language of humanitarian and egalitarian values of community and interdependence. Public health, in this context, is defined on the basis of how the society balances considerations of social accountability and personal responsibility, in public policies, whic h affect health. Social responsibility, humanitarianism, and egalitarianism, which are the values that dictate a social justice orientation to public health (Wallack & Lawrence 567), usually seem inadequate in addressing the moral resonance of individualism effectively. The content and ideas presented, in this article, are of significant benefits to the public health sector. The article suggests that, in a culture dominated with suspicious of government power and personal responsibility, it is difficult for public health professionals to adopt

Reflections Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reflections - Assignment Example Three similar examples are the three theaters namely Farnese All Antica, and Olimpico. Each of these has an architectural and classical significance that stretches beyond their historical importance and dominance. Farnese in Parma is a model for modern day designs. Being the proud owner of being the one of first few to have a proscenium arch. Even in modern day, the stage placing allows for the most suitable views from all angles and serves as an epitome for all the modern day theaters and stage constructions. Stage is being parted into two clear separations on each side of the wall, allowing for expanded visibility. The statues and paintings that are placed in parallel sideways adds to the design and architectural beauty and makes the stage look more brighter and rich. While discussing these three historic theaters, the thought should not be contained only to the historic precedence and performances being performed rather the edge being enjoyed by them with regard to the craft and semiotics and the deep readings hidden in them that are often being ignored. The seating arrangements are quite spacious and can allow for large number of spectators accommodation with sufficient spacing in between. Like any other theater the seats are arranged in an ascending pattern to allow maximum visibility. Multi floor seating spacing allow for large number of spectators accommodation as well as open preview of the entire theater and stage from every angle. A combined package of ashlar quinons, sufficiently spacious seatings, accommodative of large crowd, niches and curvospezzati. Once an open air theater, was later on modified and roofed as changes and developments kept creeping in the overall design. The internal design has space for orchestra, central stage, spacious isles; frescos are an added feature which is the master piece of Paolo Veronese. Other notable frescos and works include the contribution of Villa Barbaro and Bernardino Quadri to name a few. Statues of the

Pluralism Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Pluralism - Coursework Example In the framework of this view we can see that in the world there are those who will have the light of the gospel, and those who will not; "Existing Light" View. This one implies that those who respond positively to the light will have be able to get the salvation without further light; "Greater Light" View. Here it is asserted that ‘those who respond to the light, will be given greater light’; "Later Light" View. Here it is said that the chance to hear the gospel and respond for or against Jesus will be certainly given to those who have never heard of Christ at the Second Advent or after death. The self-assessment of the Christianity, in context of pluralism varied from insisting on its exclusivity to the recognition of the other religions - and is still not fully defined. Many Christians insist that life in Christ leads to the life in the world of future, while all other religious with their pluralism reflect different ways of the human attempts to get the Gospel Truth within the framework of

Union and Nonunion Forms of Employee Representation

Union and Nonunion Forms of Employee Representation The history of workers shows us how important unions have been; it played a key role in the past and is playing a significant role in todays world scenarios. Unions just do not work for employees in a way they also help the employer by minimized turnover ratio, help reducing hiring and training cost associated with new employees. Because of all these reasons many times organisation prefers to have unionised set-up for employee voice preconisation. In these way the organisation save its resource and have smooth functioning in the company rather than using individualistic approach.(Freeman and Medoff 2004) tell about the positive sides of unions and say if the organisation takes proper care of it employees it can improve their performance at work place and also will motivate them. It wont be wrong to say union offers benefits to both employees and employers. Unions helps the employees to motivate by showing them promotion ladder and implementation of the collective interest and also by showing their rights they possess in the organisation but also their relation in state and in civil society. Unions encourage its members to be part of social welfare societies and take the given advantages. (Mike Donaldson 2008) talks about the history of labour union in Australian and how and when it came to its existence in Australia in early 1911. There it joined the linkage between the families and the organisation. It also tells about the very first stepping stone of labour trade union and their activities like the lockout at mining station and creating awareness of workers union. It is very important for union to make alliances with various forms of organisation and get interconnected within the states and the local working class and maintain strong relationship with other organisations. So the union keep term with the entire non government community organisation, small business and other organisation at state level and international level to form a productive relationship. (Gregor Gall 1998) With the help of these trade union organisations the workers can create a better working environment. It also helps to build trust within the organisation. Unions give a platform to employers to make good relationship with it employees and make critical but also constructive agreements for the welfare of the employees. (Rae Cooper, Bradon Ellem, Patricia Todd 2012) These articles talks about the new changes have been made in the Australian labour government fair work act 2009 and the restoration of collective bargaining as its main aim. The changes between 1996 and 2005 which are most important for assessing how the Fair Work Act was designed and has come to operate were those that altered bargaining arrangements and other changes which reduced union effectiveness. It briefly addressed each before dealing with the Fair Work Act itself. (Donna M. Buttigieg, Stephen J. Deery and Roderick D.lverson June 2008) article talks about the importance of union and shows us what all can go wrong without proper union in organisation. Its based on mobilization theory were in a large data is utilized for a survey done with financial service during renegotiation of collective bargaining contract. Through this survey it was clear that the masses would follow the union as they can experience sense of injustice done to employees when they held the collectivist orientation to work organisation. Perceptions of injustice are critical for collective action as they act as a means of separating workers from the employer in terms of shared interests, particularly where blame is attributed to management. Its the rights of the workers to join a union or be part of the union and accompanied by union official at disciplinary and grievance hearings. A fellow worker is chosen among the workers and is made a representative in non unionised setting who is more familiar with the association and can be the spoken person on behalf of the employees. These representatives perform various role in organisation they are many a times appointed by the management who carry the information from them and pass it widely within the employees.(Patmore 2006) non union representatives are normally functions in organisations which does not requires collective bargaining. All the employees are not part of unions and many times some employees disagree with the unions as well. Employees who are non unions members come to the representatives to take advice on legal duties or business transfers and also in situations of large scale redundancies. So she representatives help those employees who are not part of union and give them consultation on legal matters when it occurs. Many of the times these representatives are appointed by the management themselves so they can consult those employees who need them in performing legal duties and they dont have to search for such representatives when suddenly such legal duties are arise, these also helps the employees to improve their performance and be loyal and achieve their commitment done to employer.(Coyle-Shapiro, Jacqueline A-M. and Shore, Lynn M 2007) The different forms of non union representatives such as Representative of health bad safety, Representative of information and consultation representative, Pension representatives, work force agreement representative etc. These forms of non union representative also work for the welfare of the employees and they are well organised and have good terms with the management as well. Health and safety representatives of employees are appointed in the organisation, they are not part of any union but they are representatives who work for the health and safety issues of the employees. Under the regulation 1996 as amended in 1998, 1999 and 2005) these representatives are covered under health and safety of employees. These representatives are given proper training so that they can perform their duties well in the situation of safety and health measures, they are paid for these training programs which encourage the employees to get involved in such activites.Their main agenda is to provide better health facilities to employees at work place and maintain the safety rules. The form of non union representative is information and consultant representative who is been selected from the members of subsequent information and consultation body. These representatives have the rights to provide protection against dismissal. They have the rights to negotiate an agreement or the s tandard agreement under the regulations. They see to that the employees practise the following regulations and provisions established. Under the occupational and personal pension schemes (consultation by Employers and Miscellaneous Amendment) regulation 2006 the representatives of pension carry out their functions in the organisation. These pension representatives are parts of union and non union forms and are elected to give consultation on issues related to pension schemes to the employees in the organisation. Under the Transfer of Undertakings (Protection of Employment) Regulations 2006, known as TUPE gives consultation over the transfer of undertaking. When there are no union to carry collective bargaining purposes the non union representatives consultation under TUPE. Then we have workplace representatives in the organisations that function under the workforce agreements. These agreements are between the employer and employees were they have mutual understanding on issues like working time, maternity and paternity and fixed term employment. The union have more rights as compare to the non union representatives but both try their best to protect the rights of the employees and their should not be any injustice done to them in terms of work aagrements.These various form of non union work representatives have come up together and performing the same role of union without being part of any particular labour union organisation. With the modern times the views of people are changing and they are excepting the concept of non union representatives. There has been tremendous decline in the trade union organisations. Many countries develop as well as developing countries are encouraging the non union forms of representative. These non union representative make employees views known to management , help strengthen both managements and employees understanding of workplace issues and other matters affecting the business, help create an atmosphere of mutual trust betwe en employees and management and therefore improve workplace relations.( Martin Upchurch, Mike Richardson, Stephanie Tailby, Andy Danford, Paul Stewart 2006) Non-union forms of employee representation have become increasingly encouraged at uk work place and soon the trend is started all across the globe. Many organisations are promoting and supporting the non union representatives for betterment of the employees. To improve the individual and organisational performance partnership working style has been encouraged by the new labour, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, the Confederation of British Industry and the TUC. The article is based on the survey done in UK financial sector were interview were taken and full organisation was involved including the manager and staff. It showed the linkage between the working pattern of non union employees representative and the employer. The survey was based on the employees attitude. The result of the survey cleared showed tha t the non union partnership framework that was functioning in the organisation was constrained to a limited structure and because of these reason the demands of the employees was bounded. (Paul J. Gollan 2005) the article seeks the weaker side of non union form and tried to show that these representatives have less power than unionism organisations and it more controlled by management of the organisation. With the help of analysis it showed the importance of unions in terms support and sustainability. It showed the European directive on information and consultation and how it implemented in in the UK law and its increasing focus on workplace representation arrangements. It was clearly shown that many issues were raised like effectiveness, impact and legitimacy of union because of non union representatives. There was lack of effective voice of non union form of representatives and these were the major problem at Eurotunnel. In the forthcoming implementations into UK law this perceptions of the lack of effective voices is given importance in the recent introduction of the European directive. The main implication of this case study was that he non union representative an d management and the employees were not well coordinated and the representatives could not do much the of employees interest. It is essential to have effective employee voice over workplace to achieve and maintain employees satisfaction. The main difference between union and non-union forms of employee representation is joint consultation between the management and employees. These help the management to understand the problems of employees and choose the appropriate solution to problems. It helps in variety of decision making and exercise of power; in contrast to unionism. It gives equal opportunity to employees to join the agreement of the employers as its done in unionism(Salamon, 2000) so it is more of management preference instead of employee or unions representatives as they are the one encouraging employees , invest money on the activities in the organisation so their decisions it should be considered. The only motive is better performance and cost effective production. To remove the operational problems it very important that joint consultation method expands in organisations and these will help to make wise decision making which will even seek for the employees opinions. Union and non union representatives b oth work for the welfare of the employees in the organisation, their major motive is to give security to employees and to enhance their work performance in the organisation. These organisations also help the employers to know the need and area for betterment for the employees. But we can even denies the fact that many of the times these unions become a threat to the employers and take the undue advantage of the power were as the non union representation lack the independence and because of these there position is weaker compare to union. Both union and non union works for the betterment of employee and boost to employees performance.

History of philosophy Essay

Philosophers Aestheticians Epistemologists Ethicists Logicians Metaphysicians Social and political philosophers Traditions Analytic Continental Eastern Islamic Platonic Scholastic Periods Ancient Medieval Modern Contemporary Literature Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Social philosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers Philosophy portal v t e The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context? To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras be understood even today? All cultures — be they prehistoric, medieval, or modern; Eastern, Western, religious or secular — have had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such theories have grown from different premises and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to) rationalism (theories arrived at through logic),empiricism (theories arrived at through observation), and even through leaps of faith, hope and inheritance (such as the supernaturalist philosophies and religions). History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development of philosophical ideas through time. Contents [hide] 1 Western philosophy 1. 1 Ancient philosophy 1. 2 Medieval philosophy. 1. 3 Renaissance philosophy 1. 4 Modern philosophy 1. 5 Contemporary philosophy 2 Eastern philosophy 2. 1 Babylonian philosophy 2. 2 Indian philosophy 2. 3 Persian philosophy 2. 4 Chinese philosophy 3 Abrahamic philosophy 3. 1 Jewish philosophy 3. 2 Christian philosophy 3. 3 Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 1 Religious roots 3. 3. 2 Transferring of Greek philosophy 3. 3. 3 Periods 3. 3. 3. 1 Early Islamic philosophy 3. 3. 3. 2 Mystical philosophy 3. 3. 3. 3 Transcendent Theosophy 3. 3. 3. 4 Modern era 3. 4 Judeo-Islamic philosophy 4 African philosophy. 5 Further reading 6 See also 7 Footnotes 8 References 9 External links Western philosophy[edit] Western philosophy has a long history, conventionally divided into four large eras – the Ancient, Medieval, Modern, and Contemporary. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late 15th century and the Renaissance. The â€Å"Modern† is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from Post-Medieval through the specific period up to the 20th century. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the 20th century up to the present day. Ancient philosophy[edit] Further information: Ancient philosophy Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor Western Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with Thales of Miletus, who was active around 585 B. C. and left us the opaque dictum, â€Å"all is water. † His most noted students were Anaximenes of Miletus (â€Å"all is air†) and Anaximander (all is apeiron). Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the next few centuries. Among the most important were Heraclitus (â€Å"all is fire†, all is chaotic and transitory), Anaxagoras (reality is so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by mind), the Pluralists and Atomists (the world is composite of innumerable interacting parts), the Eleatics Parmenides and Zeno (all is One and change is impossible, as illustrated by his famous paradoxes of motion), the Sophists(became known, perhaps unjustly, for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished). This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in Athens, which had become the dominant city-state in Greece. There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory[which? ] says that it occurred because Athens had a direct democracy. It is known from Plato’s writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See Battle of Lade). Another theory explains the birth of philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists. The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project – one still being pursued today – is Socrates, who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the Oracle of Delphi he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates’ awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including Plato), which led to his trial and executionin 399 B. C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, piety, and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles, and drink the poison hemlock. Socrates’ most important student was Plato, who founded the Academy of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied theSocratic method of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato’s dialogues are the Theory of Forms, i. e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the things of this world, which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; That true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the city-state should be governed by a merit class of propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by  an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates’ words. Interestingly, in his most famous work, The Republic, Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put to death again, citing the philosophers’ relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern. Plato’s most outstanding student was Aristotle, perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher. Aristotelian logic was the first type oflogic to attempt to categorize every valid syllogism. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be valid. A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle’s syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, â€Å"All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C. † This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle’s syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for things that really exist (â€Å"no empty classes†) The application of Aristotelian logic is preceded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms. The memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms. Each syllogism had a name, for example: â€Å"Modus Ponens† had the form of â€Å"If A is true, then B is true. A is true, therefore B is true. † Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle’s 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object. A few logicians developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects. Medieval philosophy[edit] Further information: Medieval philosophy The history of western medieval philosophy is generally divided into two periods, early medieval philosophy, which started with St. Augustine in the mid 4th century and lasted until the recovery in the 13th century West of a great bulk of Aristotle’s works and their subsequent translation into Latin from the Arabic and Greek, and high medieval philosophy, which came about as a result of the recovery of Aristotle. This period, which lasted a mere century and a half compared to the nine centuries of the early period, came to a close around the time of William of Ockham in the middle of the 14th century. Western medieval philosophy was primarily concerned with implementing the Christian faith with philosophical reason, that is, â€Å"baptizing† reason. Early medieval philosophy was influenced by the likes of Stoicism, neo-Platonism, but, above all, the philosophy of Plato himself. The prominent figure of this period was St. Augustine who adopted Plato’s thought and Christianized it in the 4th century and whose influence dominated medieval philosophy perhaps up to end of the era but was checked with the arrival of Aristotle’s texts. Augustinianism was the preferred starting point for most philosophers (including the great St. Anselm of Canterbury) up until the 13th century. During the later years of the early medieval period and throughout the years of the high medieval period, there was a great emphasis on the nature of God and the application of Aristotle’s logic and thought to every area of life. Attempts were made to reconcile these three things by means of scholasticism. One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible. The point of this exercise was not so much to justify belief in God, since in the view of medieval Christianity this was self-evident, but to make classical philosophy, with its extra-biblical pagan origins, respectable in a Christian context. One monumental effort to overcome mere logical argument at the beginning of the high medieval period was to follow Aristotelian demonstration by starting from effects and reasoning up to their causes. This took the form of the cosmological argument, conventionally attributed to St. Thomas Aquinas. The argument roughly is that everything that exists has a cause. But since there could not be an infinite chain of causes back into the past, there must have been an uncaused â€Å"first cause. † This is God. Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God. Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused. Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing. Similar arguments were used to prove God’s power and uniqueness. Another important argument for proof of the existence of God was the ontological argument, advanced by St. Anselm. Basically, it says that God is that than which nothing greater can be thought. There is nothing that simply exists in the mind that can be said to be greater than something that enjoys existence in reality. Hence the greatest thing that the mind can conceive of must exist in reality. Therefore, God exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward. In addition to St. Thomas Aquinas, St. Augustine and St. Anselm, other important names from the medieval period include Blessed John Duns Scotus, St. Bonaventure, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius, and Pierre Abelard. The definition of the word â€Å"philosophy† in English has changed over the centuries. In medieval times, any research outside the fields oftheology or medicine was called â€Å"philosophy†, hence the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal dating from 1665, the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D. ) degree covers a wide range of subjects, and the Cambridge Philosophical Society is actually concerned with what we would now call science and not modern philosophy. Renaissance philosophy[edit] This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section byadding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2013) The neutrality of this section is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (May 2013) Main article: Renaissance philosophy Contemporary philosophical historiography emphasizes a great â€Å"gap† between Middle Ages and Modern thought. And often this â€Å"gap† is used as a mean to characterize the meaning of the word â€Å"modern† used in â€Å"modern philosophy†. However, a historical perspective (and philosophical ones less interested into a single solid â€Å"gap†) emphasizes the existence of a long period of transition between the teleologically driven centuries (running up the 13th or 14th centuries) and the rationalists-empiricists debates. As well as for the figurative arts, music, vernacular languages and literatures, and the Christian religion, philosophy was greatly renewed in The Renaissance. The Renaissance, spread into Europe from Italy and in particular from Northern Italy and Tuscany, also by the means of architecture, arts and literature, inaugurated new philosophical problems, and permitted a new era of thought, independent from the Roman Church. If most medieval philosophers were priests and monks, early and late Renaissance philosophers were a more heterogeneous population, including rhetors, magicians and astrologues, early empirical scientist, poets, philologists. The new era put together all these souls in the search for the human specificity. The study of humanae litterae overcame that of divinae litterae, and opened the way for modern skepticism and science. Many philosophers from the Renaissance are today read and remembered, even if often not categorized into a single category, but spread into modern philosophy (if they fit, especially if oriented towards empiricism and rationalism, like Galileo Galilei or Machiavelli) or instead put back into the Middle Ages, especially if heavily influenced by esoteric traditions (like Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Marsilio Ficino and even Nicholas of Cusa and Giordano Bruno). Only a few, relatively â€Å"innocuous† philosophers are often fully recognized as Renaissance philosophers: Montaigne, Tommaso Campanella, Telesius among them. Modern philosophy[edit] Main article: Modern philosophy Further information: 17th-century philosophy, 18th-century philosophy, and 19th-century philosophy As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term â€Å"Modern Philosophy† that exist in practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the â€Å"Age of Reason†, where systematic philosophy became common, excluding Erasmus and Machiavellias â€Å"modern philosophers†. Another is to date it, the way the entire larger modern period is dated, from the Renaissance. In some usages, â€Å"Modern Philosophy† ended in 1800, with the rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the lumpers/splitters problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between â€Å"The Age of Reason† or â€Å"Early Modern Philosophers† and â€Å"The Enlightenment†; another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia’s philosophy section therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over periods, but it is important to note the variety of practice that occurs. David Hume A broad overview would then have Erasmus, Francis Bacon, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Galileo Galileirepresent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. 17th-century philosophy is dominated by the need to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of Rene Descartes, Blaise Pascal, and Thomas Hobbes. This type of philosophy attempts to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other skeptical beliefs, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the dualismbetween spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism ofGeorge Berkeley (idealism) and Benedict de Spinoza (dual aspect theory). It was during this time period that the empiricism was developed as an alternative to skepticism by John Locke, George Berkeley and others. It should be mentioned that John Locke and Thomas Hobbes developed their well known political philosophies during this time, as well. The 18th-century philosophy article deals with the period often called the early part of â€Å"The Enlightenment† in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after Sir Isaac Newton’s natural philosophy. Thus Diderot, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu,Kant and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the American Revolution and American Enlightenment are part of The Enlightenment. Other prominent philosophers of this time period were David Hume and Adam Smith, who, along with Francis Hutcheson, were also the primary philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment and Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson who were philosophers of the American Enlightenment. Edmund Burke was influenced by the Scottish Enlightenment, namely Hume’s skeptism and reliance on tradition and the passions, and while supporting the American Revolution based on the established rights of Englishmen, rejected the â€Å"natural rights† claims of the Enlightenment and vehemently rejected the Rationalism of the French Revolution (see Reflections on the Revolution in France). The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of Hegel, whose Logic and Phenomenology of Spirit produced a â€Å"dialectical† framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include Schopenhauer’s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as Adam Smith, but fundamentally challenged established conceptions. Also in the 19th century, the Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard took philosophy in a new direction by focusing less on abstract concepts and more on what it means to be an existing individual. His work provided impetus for many 20th century philosophical movements, including existentialism. Contemporary philosophy[edit] Further information: Contemporary philosophy The 20th century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include Ludwig Wittgenstein, Martin Heidegger, Bertrand Russell, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Edmund Husserl. Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of Heidegger, Russell, Karl Popper, and Claude Levi-Strauss. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded existentialism (Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Albert Camus) and finallypoststructuralism (Gilles Deleuze, Jean-Francois Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida). Pragmatist Richard Rorty has argued that these and other schools of 20th century philosophy, including his own, share an opposition to classical dualism that is both anti-essentialist and antimetaphysical. [1] The psychoanalytic work of Sigmund Freud, Jacques Lacan, Julia Kristeva, and others has also been influential in contemporary continental philosophy. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, Hans-Georg Gadamer and Alasdair MacIntyre have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of Aristotelianism. The philosophy of the present century is difficult to clarify due to its immaturity. A number of surviving 20th century philosophers have established themselves as early voices of influence in the 21st. These include Noam Chomsky, Saul Kripke, and Jurgen Habermas. The perceived conflict between continental and analytic schools of philosophy remains prominent, despite increasing skepticism regarding the distinction’s usefulness. A variety of new topics have risen to the stage in analytic philosophy, orienting much of contemporary discourse in the field of ethics. New inquiries consider, for example, the ethical implications of new media and information exchange. Such developments have rekindled interest in the philosophy of technology and science. There has been increased enthusiasm for highly specialized areas in philosophy of science, such as in the Bayesian school of epistemology. In contemporary continental thought, a number of developments are taking place. The field of postcolonial theory, championed in the late 20th century by theorists such as Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Homi K. Bhabha has established itself as a major academic presence. The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Zizek remains tremendously popular in both academic and popular demographics, synthesizing Lacanian, Hegelian, and Althusserian Marxist thought in discussions of popular culture and politics. Zizek is also involved with the contemporary thrust to step beyond postmodernism and the linguistic turn of the 20th century. Key contributors to this movement are the French polymath Alain Badiou, and those classified under the blanket designation of speculative realism, includingQuentin Meillassoux and Ray Brassier. On the other hand, the American philosopher Judith Butler has strong support among many demographics in her close readings of language, gender, subjectivity, corporeality, kinship, war and non-violent ethics. As a result she has received strong criticism from Zizek to Martha Nussbaum and radical Zionists. Eastern philosophy[edit] Main article: Eastern philosophy In the West, the term Eastern philosophy refers very broadly to the various philosophies of â€Å"the East†, namely Asia, including China,India, Japan, Persia and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture. Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in India and China. Babylonian philosophy[edit] See article Babylonian literature: Philosophy Indian philosophy[edit] See article Indian philosophy and Timeline of Eastern philosophers#Indian philosophers See also Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy and Jain Philosophy Indian philosophy primarily begins with the later part of Rig Veda, which was compiled before 1100 BCE. [2] Most of philosophy of the Rig Veda is contained in the sections Purusha sukta and Nasadiya Sukta. Vedas are followed by Upanishads; the oldest, such as theBrhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the 8th century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz. , Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Upanishadic thoughts were followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies. Persian philosophy[edit] See article Iranian philosophy See also Zoroastrianism Chinese philosophy[edit] See article Chinese philosophy and Buddhist philosophy#Chinese Buddhism Confucianism can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. [citation needed] Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy, Taoism, developed in China around 200 BC. [citation needed] Abrahamic philosophy[edit] See also: Abrahamic religions Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the study and commentary of the common ancient Semitic tradition which can be traced by their adherents to Abraham (â€Å"Father/Leader of many† Hebrew (â€Å"Avraham†) Arabic (â€Å"Ibrahim†), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, and as a prophet in the Qur’an and also called a prophet in Genesis 20:7). The standard text common to all of these subsequent traditions are what is known as the Hebrew Bible, roughly the first five books of the Old Testament, starting with the book of Genesis through to Deuteronomy. However, each of them added substantially different texts to their emerging canons, and hence their respective philosophical developments varied widely. Jewish philosophy[edit] Jewish philosophy Christian philosophy[edit] See article Christian philosophy Islamic philosophy[edit] See articles Islamic philosophy, Early Islamic philosophy, and Modern Islamic philosophy Islamic philosophy as Henry Corbin describes is a philosophy whose development, and whose modalities, are essentially linked to the religious and spiritual fact of Islam. [3] In the other word, it represents the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture. This description does not suggest that it is necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor even that it is exclusively produced by Muslims. [4] Religious roots[edit]. Theoretical questions were raised right from the beginning of Islam, questions which could to a certain extent be answered by reference to Islamic texts such as the Quran, the practices of the community and the traditional sayings of Muhammad, the Prophet of Islam, and his Companions. [4] In fact, rational argumentation about Islamic doctrines starts with Quran itself, and has been followed up in the utterances of the Muhammad and especially in the sermons of Ali. This despite the fact that their style and approach are different from those of the Muslim theologians. [5] Though nothing definite can be said about the beginnings of theology among Muslims, what is certain is that discussion of some of the problems, such as the issue of predestination, free will and Divine Justice, became current among Muslims during the first half of the 2nd century of Islam coincides with 8th century. Perhaps the first formal centre of such discussions was the circle of Hasan al-Basri(d. 728-29). [5] Later several theological schools have emerged from 8th to 10th century. Mu’tazili theology originated in the 8th century in Basra (Iraq) by Wasil ibn Ata (d. 748 A. D. ). [6] Transferring of Greek philosophy[edit] The early conquests of the Muslims brought them into close contact with centers of civilization heavily influenced by Christianity and also by Greek culture. Many rulers wished to understand and use the Greek forms of knowledge, some practical and some theoretical, and a large translation project started which saw official support for the assimilation of Greek culture. This had a powerful impact upon all areas of Islamic philosophy. Neoplatonism definitely became the prevalent school of thought, following closely the curriculum of Greek philosophy which was initially transmitted to the Islamic world. [4] Periods[edit] Henry Corbin has divided the history of Islamic philosophy into three periods. [7] Early Islamic philosophy[edit] The first period of Islamic philosophy coincides with Islamic golden age. During this time pure philosophical thought is usually usedAristotelianism and Neoplatonism thought as its sources. But it also influenced by Islamic thought and culture. Falaturi has shown in his research that how Hellenistic philosophy diverged in the context of Islamic culture. On the other hand Corbin has shown how mystic aspect of Islam, especially Shia affected philosophy. This period begins with al-Kindi and ends with Averroes(d. 1198). [7] On the other hand there were crucial theological debates between Muslim theologians. These discussion also helped to rise of rational debates about religion, especially Islam. Avicenna is one the most prominent figures of this period. He is a thinker who attempted to redefine the course of Islamic philosophyand channel it into new directions. Avicenna’s metaphysical system is built on the ingredients and conceptual building blocks which are largely Aristotelian and Neoplatonic, but the final structure is more than the sum of its parts. [8] In the Islamic Golden Age, due toAvicenna’s successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism along with Islamic theology, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of early Islamic philosophy by the 12th century. Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then. [9] Although this school was highly criticized by Muslim theologians, such as al-Ghazali, philosophers, like Averroes, and Sufis, Avicenna’s writings spread like fire and continued until today to form the basis of philosophic education in the Islamic world. For to the extent that the post-Averroistic tradition remained philosophic, especially in the eastern Islamic lands, it moved in the directions charted for it by Avicenna in the investigation of both theoretical and practical sciences. [8] Mystical philosophy[edit] After the death of Averroes, Islamic philosophy in the Peripatetic style went out of fashion in the Arab part of Muslim world, until the 19th century. Mystical philosophy, by contrast, continued to flourish, although no thinkers matched the creativity of Ibn Arabi or Ibn Sab‘in. In the Persian-speaking part, Islamic philosophy has continued to follow a largely Illuminationist curriculum, which is introduced by Suhrawardi. [4][7] Transcendent Theosophy[edit] The third period, according to Corbin, begins in the 16th century after emergence of Safavid dynasty in Persia. [7] The most prominent figure of this period is Mulla Sadra who introduced Transcendent Theosophy as a critical philosophy which brought together Peripatetic,Illuminationist and gnostic philosophy along with Ash’ari and Twelvers theology, the source of which lay in the Islamic revelation and the mystical experience of reality as existence. [10][11] This philosophy becomes dominant form of philosophy in Iran since 19th century. Shah Wali Allah extended Suhrawardi school of thought to the Indian subcontinent. [4] Modern era[edit] New trends have emerged during 19th and 20th centuries due to challenge of western philosophy and Modernity to traditional Islamic philosophy. On one hand some of the scholars such as Jamal-ad-Din Asadabadi and Muhammad Abduh sought to find rational principles which would establish a form of thought which is both distinctively Islamic and also appropriate for life in modern scientific societies, a debate which is continuing within Islamic philosophy today. Muhammad Iqbal is one of the prominent figure of this group who provided a rather eclectic mixture of Islamic and European philosophy. On the other hand some thinkers reacted to the phenomenon of modernity by developing Islamic fundamentalism.

Michel Foucault and John Locke

The private realm, with family life as its foundation, has a significant place in western culture, which has its roots in the notion of pater familias or family head that formulates the family life as a unique kingdom in Roman law. The private sphere that includes the family life and means a realm outside the public sphere began to be used only in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This concept initially referred to the realm outside the dynamic or active social life. This idea of the private sphere outside of the public life and of the center of the private activities have forced some political thinkers to take part in theoretical discussions regarding the separation of the public and private spheres. According to Locke, as the foundation of political authority, the social contract emerges outside the family life. Accordingly, the private realm can be defined as the realm of women, symbolized by sentimentality, compassion, love, sympathy and generosity. Contrary to this, the public sphere is the realm of men, dominated by rationality, mutual exchange and observation in every aspect of social life. Despite inspiring the emergence of a state, Locke's understanding of the public sphere continues to live on with different social elements that have their own dynamism. For Locke, therefore, the public sphere has two dimensions: â€Å"political† and â€Å"social.† The objective of the defined political sphere is to protect the freedom of the public along with its life and property rights. This is demonstrated in the Second Treaties of Government, in which Locke offers three different realms: the â€Å"private sphere† of women, the â€Å"public sphere† of men in general and the â€Å"political sphere† of state servants such as members of the police, military and judiciary. Contrary to Locke, Foucault focuses primarily on the notion of the public sphere merged with political authority. In this regard, â€Å"General Will† dominates public life as the product of men who have gone beyond family life. Such an understanding sharply differentiates Rousseau from Locke. In any case, it was Foucault who laid the foundation for a notion of a transcendental state that overshadows the public life dominated by free men. In Foucault's view, men who make up the differentiating public life outside of family life become the objects of civil society in a transcendental state. This transcendental state, he further argues, first combines all unique aspects and elements of different societal groups within its metaphysical container and then enforces its own ideology in order to claim control over them. In sum, as opposed to Locke, for Hegel and Rousseau there are two opposing spheres: a private realm belonging to women, children and the disabled, and a public life belonging to men who are united to the state structure with compassion and affection. It is thus evident that their conception of the public sphere is intimately connected to the political authority. In his Rà ©umà © des cours, those summaries published for all the prestigious Collà ¨ge de France lectures, the chapter entitled â€Å"Il faut dà ©fendre la socià ©tà ©Ã¢â‚¬  (â€Å"Society must be defended†) makes passing reference to race. Foucault was concerned with how war came to be an analytic tool of historical knowledge and of social relations at large. Moreover, the issue of racism in the lectures seems ancillary and oddly displaced. This is not a prelude to an argument that we have all missed the â€Å"real† Foucault, and that the key to a genealogy of racism is waiting for us in his taped lectures rather than in published form. Both texts are concerned with the emergence of an alternative discourse to that of sovereign right, to â€Å"a discourse of the war of races† that Foucault will identify as the first â€Å"contre-histoire† (counter-history) to a unitary conception of power represented in a historical discourse that served the sovereign state. Racism emerges as one of several possible domains in which technologies of sexuality are worked out and displayed. In the lectures, state racism is not an effect but a tactic in the internal fission of society into binary oppositions, a means of creating â€Å"biologized† internal enemies, against whom society must defend itself. On the issues of race and colonialism, we can notice several contradictory impulses in Foucault's work: a focus on racism and an elision of it, a historiography so locked in Europe and its discursive formations that colonial genocide and narratives about it could only be derivative of the internal dynamics of European states. The studied absence of the impact of colonial culture on Foucault's bourgeois order did more than constrain his mapping of the discourses of sexuality. In the end, Foucault confined his vision to a specific range of racisms, a range that students of colonial history who might choose to follow his genealogical methods would be prompted to reject. English political and social thought in the seventeenth century is characterized by the idea of possessive individualism. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it became an underlying and unifying assumption. Its â€Å"possessive† quality is found in the condition of the individual as essentially the proprietor of his (or presumably her) own person or capacities, owing nothing to society for them. Thus for theorists such as John Locke, the individual â€Å"pre-figures† society, and society will be happy and secure to the extent that individuals are happy and secure. Not only does the individual own his or her own capacities, but, more crucially, each is morally and legally responsible for himself or herself. Freedom from dependence on others means freedom from relations with others except those relations entered into voluntarily out of self-interest. Human society is simply a series of market relations between self-interested subjects. For Foucault it is guided by an â€Å"invisible hand.† For John Locke society is a â€Å"joint stock company† of which individuals are shareholders. Paradoxically, while the impact of individualism was dominant in relation to the social, political, educational, and scientific ideas of the late nineteenth, early twentieth century, this period actually marked a major extension of the State's authority over every aspect of the individual's life and to every corner of society. The problems of urbanization, population increases, immigration, war, and a major concern with eugenics gave rise to more regulation and control, leading to the State's encouragement of various forms of social research. Locke argues that since absolute monarchs claim the right to be â€Å"Judges in their own Cases,† because absolute monarchy is based on the assumption that no individual on earth has a right to challenge the legitimacy of the will of an absolute monarch, it is irrational because of the rational prohibition against any man being a judge in his own case. Moreover, since an absolute monarch claims the right to absolute power and control over all his subjects, it is irrational because any attempt to exert absolute power and control by one person over another violates the rational precepts of the law of nature and establishes a state of war between individuals. As such, an absolute monarch is held by Locke to be in a state of war with his subjects, and since civil government is established to prevent a state of war, absolute monarchy provides no â€Å"remedy for the Inconveniences of the state of nature,† for it is but a continuation of a state of war. In this manner, Locke presents us with his criticism of the rational and moral legitimacy of absolute monarchy, and thereby establishes the principle that a necessary condition of legitimate government is that it be limited in the permissible exercise of political power and authority. Limited government, that is, becomes the legitimate alternative to any form of absolute government. Furthermore, it is also possible to understand that, for Locke, the law of nature establishes the legitimate limitation on government, in the sense that the exercise of political power and authority is only legitimate if it protects the natural rights of individuals to â€Å"Life, Health, Liberty, or Possessions.† At this point, Locke introduces the idea of consent, by claiming that since individuals are, â€Å"by nature, all free, equal and independent, no one can be put out of this Estate and subjected to the Political Power of another, without his own Consent.† Accordingly, it logically follows that the transformation from a nonpolitical existence to a political one can only legitimately be accomplished by the individual consent of each individual in the state of nature. Does this particular use of the idea of consent constitute anything more than formal conformity to the methodological requirements of contractarian thought, or does it have a more substantive status within the context of Locke's political thought? In relation to the issue of subjectivity, Foucault rejects identity-based politics rooted in the notion of an historical, pre-discursive â€Å"I.† For Foucault â€Å"identities† are â€Å"self representations† or â€Å"fixations† that are neither fixed nor stable. The subject is not a â€Å"thing† outside of culture, and there is no pure â€Å"state of nature† to ground history either. The subject is not a substantive entity at all but rather a process of signification with an open system of discursive possibilities. The self is a regulated but not determined set of practices and possibilities. Conclusion Asserts Foucault, â€Å"If the genealogist refuses to extend his faith in metaphysics, if he listens to history, he finds that there is ‘something altogether different' behind things; not a timeless and essential secret, but the secret that they have no essence or that their essence was fabricated in a piecemeal fashion from alien forms.† Contrary to what John Locke would contend about power, unity (whether of consciousness proper or the continuity of personal experience) is not the essence of subjectivity. Unity is a mask for an interplay of anonymous forces and historical accidents that permits us to identify subjects, to identify ourselves, as specific human beings. Unity-identity-is imposed on subjects as the mask of their fabrication. Subjectivity is the carceral and incarcerating expression of this imposition, of the limitations drawn around us by discourses of truth and practices of individualization; but seen through the â€Å"differential knowledge† of genealogy, the identity of subjectivity collapses. RESOURCES John Locke â€Å"Second Treaties of Government,† Two Treaties of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), chapter VII. Foucault M. (1997k). â€Å"Society must be defended†. In M. Foucault, Ethics, Subjectivity and Truth: The Essential Works (Ed. P. Rabinow, trans. R. Hurley) (pp. 5966). Allen Lane, London: Penguin Press.   

Free Essays on Mariah - Cultural Perspectives

Cultural Perspectives in â€Å"Mariah† Whether it is realized or not, people view the world they reside in by means of their cultural experiences. Each event or idea is therefore seen through this lens, which shapes one’s ideas about norms, values, and their basic ideology. This theme unmistakably presents itself in Jamaica Kincaid’s â€Å"Mariah,† and is established and supported by the narrator, an au pair from Antigua. While caring for the children, she develops an ambiguous relationship with their mother, Mariah. The narrator has been deeply influenced by her past, even though she rejects her heritage and views it negatively. Her culture is a source of inner strife, further highlighting the differences between herself and Mariah, and thus the cultural differences between Antigua and the United States. The narrator is seemingly caught between her own past culture and that of Mariah’s; she cannot reconcile the two as separate entities. As a result, the narrator’s experiences ar e shaped by her unique cultural perspective. Each incident relays both the contrast between her past and present lives, as well as examines how these differences affect her as an individual and her ability to establish relationships with those whose upbringing differs from her own. One of the first instances where the narrator’s cultural difference becomes apparent is when Mariah takes her to see a field of daffodils. Mariah sees beauty in the flower and wants the narrator to experience the same joy this beauty brings her. However, she fails to realize the implications of this display. The narrator, been forced to memorize a poem about daffodils in her youth, cannot see the flower in the same simplicity Mariah does. Mariah knows the narrator’s history and apprehension toward the flower, but she insists on taking her to see them for herself, inadvertently belittling her experience. The narrator points out, â€Å"‘Do you realize that at t... Free Essays on Mariah - Cultural Perspectives Free Essays on Mariah - Cultural Perspectives Cultural Perspectives in â€Å"Mariah† Whether it is realized or not, people view the world they reside in by means of their cultural experiences. Each event or idea is therefore seen through this lens, which shapes one’s ideas about norms, values, and their basic ideology. This theme unmistakably presents itself in Jamaica Kincaid’s â€Å"Mariah,† and is established and supported by the narrator, an au pair from Antigua. While caring for the children, she develops an ambiguous relationship with their mother, Mariah. The narrator has been deeply influenced by her past, even though she rejects her heritage and views it negatively. Her culture is a source of inner strife, further highlighting the differences between herself and Mariah, and thus the cultural differences between Antigua and the United States. The narrator is seemingly caught between her own past culture and that of Mariah’s; she cannot reconcile the two as separate entities. As a result, the narrator’s experiences ar e shaped by her unique cultural perspective. Each incident relays both the contrast between her past and present lives, as well as examines how these differences affect her as an individual and her ability to establish relationships with those whose upbringing differs from her own. One of the first instances where the narrator’s cultural difference becomes apparent is when Mariah takes her to see a field of daffodils. Mariah sees beauty in the flower and wants the narrator to experience the same joy this beauty brings her. However, she fails to realize the implications of this display. The narrator, been forced to memorize a poem about daffodils in her youth, cannot see the flower in the same simplicity Mariah does. Mariah knows the narrator’s history and apprehension toward the flower, but she insists on taking her to see them for herself, inadvertently belittling her experience. The narrator points out, â€Å"‘Do you realize that at t...

Express Quantity in English for Beginning Speakers

Express Quantity in English for Beginning Speakers There are many phrases used to express quantities and amounts in English. In general, much and many are the  standard quantifiers  used to express  large quantities. Which expression you use will often depend on whether the noun is countable or uncountable, and whether the sentence is negative or positive. While much and many are among the most common, the following expressions are often used in place of much and many, especially in positive sentences: A lot ofLots ofPlenty ofA great deal ofA large number of These expressions can are combined with of in the sense of most, many, or much. A lot of people enjoy listening to jazz. A great deal of time is spent understanding these issues. But note that much, most, and many do not take of. Most people enjoy listening to some type of music. Not: Most of  people... Much time is spent understanding math. Not: Much of time is spent ... Much Much is used with uncountable nouns: There is much interest in learning English around the world. How much money do you have? There isnt much butter left in the refrigerator. Much is used in negative sentences and questions, too: How much money do you have? There isnt much rice left. Note that much is rarely used in the positive form. English speakers generally use a lot of or lots of  with uncountable  nouns. We have a lot of time. Not: We have much time. There is a lot of wine in the bottle. Not: There is much wine in the bottle. Many Many is used with countable nouns: How many people came to the party? There arent many apples on the table. Note that many is used in the positive form, unlike much:   Andrew has a lot of friends / Andrew has many friends. A lot of my friends live in New York / Many of my friends live in New York. A Lot of / Lots of /  Plenty  Of A lot of and lots of can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. A lot of and lots of are used in positive sentences: There is a lot of water in that jar. Hes got lots of friends in London. Note that generally speaking, lots of sounds less formal than a lot of.   A Little / A Few A little and a few  indicate a quantity or number. Use a little with uncountable nouns: There is a little wine in that bottle.   There is a little sugar in my coffee. Use a few with countable nouns. He has a few friends in New York. We bought a few sandwiches on our way to the park. Little / Few Little and few indicate a limited quantity. Use little with uncountable nouns: I have little money to spend. She found little time for work. Use few with countable nouns: He has few students in his class.   Jack finds few reasons to stay. Some Use some in positive sentences when there is neither a lot nor a little. Some can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns. We have some friends who work in Los Angeles.   Ive saved some money to spend on vacation this summer.   Any (Questions) Use any in questions to ask if someone has something. Any can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns: Do you have any friends in San Francisco? Is there any pasta left?   Note that when offering or requesting something use some instead of any  for polite questions. Would you like some shrimp? (offer) Would you lend me some money? (request) Any (Negative Sentences) Use any with countable and uncountable nouns in negative sentences to state that something doesnt exist. We wont have any time for shopping today. They didnt have any problems finding our house.   Enough Use enough  with countable and uncountable nouns to state that you are satisfied with the amount of something. She has enough time to visit her friends in Dallas. I think we have enough hamburgers for tomorrows grill.   Not Enough Use not enough when you are not satisfied with the amount of something. Im afraid theres not enough time to continue this conversation. There are not enough people working at the moment.   Each / Every Use each or every when referring to the individuals in a group. I think every person in this room would agree with me. Im sure each step of this process is important.   Large / Big / Vast / Huge Amount of Use these adjectives with amount of with uncountable and countable nouns to express large quantities. This form is often used to exaggerate just how much there is. There is a huge amount of work to be done to today. Tom has a vast amount of knowledge about the subject.   Tiny / Small / Minuscule Amount of   Use these similar adjectives with amount of to express very small quantities. This form is often used in exaggeration to express how little there is of something.   Peter has a small amount of patience, so dont joke around with him. There is a minuscule amount of time left to register. Hurry up!

Benefits of using electronic whiteboards as a teaching aid Essay

Benefits of using electronic whiteboards as a teaching aid - Essay Example It is possible to maintain cleanliness in the environment while using whiteboards, as there are no chalks or dusters. Besides providing the convenience of using flipcharts, pictures, maps and charts during demonstration which otherwise would not have been possible, it mainly provides the following benefits: It serves as an excellent tool for brainstorming sessions, either in meetings or classrooms, the demonstrator has the benefit of conducting question-answer session in several ways, which after analyzing and ensuring that all pupils are taking part, uses symbols or communication aid to mark the answer as true or false or to transfer their views on whiteboard for display purpose. It is easy to get students' attention, as it is a colourful medium. Whiteboard is ideal in situations where the computer access is limited as it is an interactive tool, which works best when there is only a single computer in classroom. While working along with computer and projector and in addition to displaying lectures or information, it can also send that information to all students in a class and possess the ability to research a topic using Internet along with the class. Electronic whiteboards help in daily updating of lesson plans.

Developmental Timeline Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Developmental Timeline - Essay Example The final stage is the formal operational stage and this stage goes from the age of 12 and ends at death. In this stage, children can think articulately about concrete objects and they have a strong sense of reasoning. There are also substages to these stages. The first substage to the sensorimotor stage is from the ages of birth to one month and it occurs through reflexes like grasping and sucking. In this stage knowledge is acquired through these reflexes. Substage 2 happens from the ages of 1 to 4 months. Reflexes are organized into larger more complex behaviours where behaviours like grabbing a rattle to suck occurs. Substage 3 occurs from the ages of 4 to 8 months where repetition of actions causes pleasing or interesting things to happen as in the case of banging a rattle. Substage 4 occurs from the ages of 8 to 12 months. This occurs when objects can be imagined with the mind even when they are out of sight. Substage 5 occurs from the ages of 12 to 18 months where an object is used in a variety of ways. For example, banging a spoon against a high chair.